[99] When Honorius died in August 423, his courtiers proclaimed one of their number John emperor, but Theodosius acknowledged Galla Placidia's six-year-old son by Constantius, Valentinian III as Honorius' lawful successor. The "Fall" of the Roman Empire. Non-compliant Christians were executed or forced into exile and the purge continued until Emperor Gallienus put an end to it in 260. 325-ca. The Code of Theodosius contains about 2,500 entries and covers the period between 335 and 437. Bonifatius defeated Aetius at Rimini in 432, but was mortally wounded during the battle. The use of the adjectives "sacred" and "divine" became common when referring anything with direct contact with the emperor, including his bedchamber and treasury. His is the last major historical account of the late Roman Empire which survives today. [125][126] For Roman soldiery served twenty-year terms, this army size could be maintained through the recruitment of at least 20,000 troops each year. Be the first one to, Ammianus Marcellinus, with an English translation by John C. Rolfe, Advanced embedding details, examples, and help, Terms of Service (last updated 12/31/2014). [4] The date of his death is unknown, but he must have lived until 391, as he mentions Aurelius Victor as the city prefect for that year. They defeated Bonifatius who was the military commander of Roman Africa and captured Hippo Regius in Numidia. The new imperial aristocracy was based on office-holding instead of inherited wealth and family connections. Marcellinus, Ammianus, and John Carew Rolfe. He is much more sympathetic than other Roman writers in describing the Persians, where there is an echo of Herodotus in his writing. [111], In theory, Roman emperors were autocrats whose authority to make, modify or even break laws was absolute. Examples include his ban on sacred prostitution and the demolition of pagan altars and sculptures near the Oak of Mamre where God had appeared to Abraham according to Biblical tradition. ), Encyclopaedia Iranica I/9 . Ambrose of Milan sharply attacked the Jews in his correspondence with TheodosiusI about the destruction of a Syrian synagogue by Roman soldiers. [79][80] Both migrations were probably triggered by the Huns' westward expansion. With his History against the Pagans, he wanted to demonstrate that recent calamities cannot be regarded as a punishment for the suppression of traditional Roman religion. Paperback, 9780140444063, 0140444068 [38][39], The Illyrian Diocletian was a genuine representative of the soldier emperor's reformist zeal. [93] A Gallic aristocrat Jovinus secured the support of a coalition of Burgundians, Alans and other peoples and had himself proclaimed Augustus in Mainz. [Ammianus Marcellinus; Walter Hamilton; Andrew Wallace-Hadrill] -- A history of Rome during the reigns of Constantius, Julian, Jovian, Valentinian and Valens, by a fourth century army officer. [83] Alaric resumed the attacks against northern Italy and Noricum and demanded 4,000pounds of gold for a peace treaty. He was born between 325-330 AD most likely at Antioch. RomeHistoryEmpire, 284-476Historiography. [120] As a sign of the growing importance of Christianity, Constantine authorized the bishops to make judgement in civil cases between Christian litigants. Interpreting Ammianus Marcellinus . Share to Twitter. Ammianus Marcellinus was the last great Roman historian, and his writings rank alongside those of Livy and Tacitus. According to Ammianus they took part in raids on the province of Britain in ad 365, and two years later joined with other enemies of Rome in the . By hiring foreign troops, Stilicho had lost the native officers' confidence and he was murdered by plotters in Ravenna in August. 4. His report describes accurately the characteristic sequence of earthquake, retreat of the sea and sudden giant wave. The later Roman Empire (A.D. 354-378) Item Preview remove-circle Share or Embed This Item. His edits ordered the destruction of Christian churches and literature and the confiscation of church property. During previous years of drought, the exceptional ecological conditions of the fertile Nile valley had helped the Roman authorities to overcome famine in other regions, but the floods of the Nile were abnormally weak from 244 to 248. Just for joining youll get personalized recommendations on your dashboard daily and features only for members. [175][176] The Goths and most other barbarians who settled in the empire remained Arians and their strong position in the imperial army secured the survival of Arianism. Search the history of over 778 billion The later Roman Empire (A.D. 354-378). Individuals regularly approached sorcerers or applied magical practices to secure the support of unearthly powers although magical practices were outlawed. Nevertheless, his treatment of Christianity is free from prejudice and his impartiality and good judgement have been generally acknowledged. [25], The last Severan emperor, Severus Alexander was assassinated by his own troops in 235. Eusebius' Life of Constantine about the first Christian emperor is a useful collection of letters and official documents. In June the commander of the Roman troops in Britain Magnus Maximus assumed the title of Augustus and seized Gaul. He re-unified the Roman Empire, but he died on 17January 395. [58][59] For Constantius believed that Dalmatius and Hannibalianus wanted to get rid of him and his brothers, he had them and their suspected supporters executed. Empress Justina was unable to convince the powerful bishop of Milan, Ambrose, to make available a church to the Gothic guards of his son, ValentinianII in the early 380s. [115] The maintenance of two separate hierarchies of equestrian and senatorial offices became obsolete by the end of the 3rdcentury. Hypatia's death horrified Cyril, who, although he was her intellectual rival, held her in very high esteem, condemning the city for its violent nature. [148][146], The end of neoplatonism occurred during the reign of JustinianI. At that time, the Gaels of Dalriada controlled what is now Argyll as part of a kingdom that stretched across the sea between Britain and Ireland. It was closely associated with gladiator shows. [102][103] To counterbalance Aetius' power, Galla Placidia recalled Bonifatius from Africa and made him the supreme commander of the Western Roman army. For instance, the oracle at Claros spoke about the Highest God ruling over other deities, including the Twelve Olympians, in the 3rdcentury. [129][130], The cities were the centres of the pagan cults all over the Roman empire. The later Roman Empire (A.D. 354-378) by Ammianus Marcellinus First published in 1986 1 edition in 1 language 1 previewable Share to Facebook. They paid taxes and raised troops in return for protection against the "howling people" surrounding the Roman Empire, but the emperors were not always able to meet their expectations. [51] He reinforced his alliance with Licinius at a meeting in Milan in February 313. While marching towards Constantinople, he died of accidental carbon monoxide poisoning in February 364. Ammianus Marcellinus, ca. His Buildings provides a list of the achievements of Justinian's building program, but archaeological evidence sometimes contradicts it. The first thirteen of his thirty-one books are lost; the remainder describe a period of only twenty-five years (A.D. 354-378) and the reigns of the emperors Constantis, Julian, Jovian, Valentinian and Valens, for which he is a prime authority. [43] The Sassanian ruler Narseh invaded Armenia, a buffer state under Roman suzerainty, and routed Galerius in 296. After Theodosius married Valentinian's sister Galla, Maximus invaded Pannonia, but Theodosius defeated and captured him at Aquileia. Diocletian outlawed Christianity on 23February 303. Maximus withdrew to Hispania and Constantius captured Constantine at Arles. He may have feared sanctions, since in writing about the period that followed he had to chronicle the story of bloody deeds.[7] He appears to have lived again in Antioch (363 to 378). At Adrianople, the joint Gothic forces decisively defeated the Eastern Roman army led by emperor . [78], Likely the Eastern Romans' hostility to the Goths persuaded Alaric to search a new homeland in northern Italy, but Stilicho routed him at Pollentia on Easter Day 402. Augustine of Hippo writes of pagan dancers marching by Christian churches and stoning them as a reprisal for the Christian clergy's attempt to hinder the pagan celebration. His general Gerontius mutinied and acclaimed a certain Maximus emperor. Civil wars could ruin the defense system, talented barbarian chieftains could launch successful invasions deep into the empire, and catastrophic events could cause mass migrations towards the borderlands. [63] He appointed his cousin Gallus to rule the eastern provinces as Caesar, but Gallus' despotic measures caused massive discontent. [56] He appointed his three sons, ConstantineII, Constantius II, and Constans Caesars between 328 and 333, but none of them was promoted to Augustus during his lifetime. One of them, Priscus wrote a detailed report of his visit at Attila the Hun's court in 449. [22] As a surviving element of Roman republican traditions, Roman emperors had been in theory no more than principes senatus, or first among the senators during the first centuries of the monarchy. Portraying a time of rapid and dramatic change, Marcellinus describes an Empire exhausted by excessive taxation, corruption, the financial ruin of the middle classes and the progressive decline in the morale of the army. [31][32] As the continuous payment of soldiery could be secured only by the regular debasement of the Roman silver coins, the denarii, inflation became uncontrollable. In comparison with previous periods, studies on Later Roman history are based on diverse but mainly biased written sources. The Goths under his rule, now known as Visigoths, elected his brother-in-law Athaulf his successor. [166] Anxious about church unity, Constantine summoned the bishops to the first ecumenical council to Nicaea in May 325. [139] His short reign could not stop the Christianization of the Roman Empire. [141] In 382, Gratian abolished all state grants to pagan cults in the city of Rome, including the Vesta Virgins' salaries (. Quite paradoxically, even Honorius, characterized as the "most unwarlike emperor" by historian Thomas S. Burns, was depicted as a conqueror of enemy forces on his coins. Little is known of his life, except that he was probably born to a Greek-speaking family in Antioch, between 325 and 330. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press, 1972. [68][69] Facing the new military crisis, Gratian reactivated a previously dismissed Hispanian general Theodosius, and appointed him as his co-emperor in January 379. Books written by Socrates of Constantinople, Sozomen and Theodoret are the principal sources of ecclesiastic life until the mid-5thcentury. 2004 Delphi Complete Works of . The Later Roman Empire (A.D. 354-378) by Ammianus Marcellinus, Walter Hamilton, Andrew Wallace-Hadrill. A previously lively girl, Blaesilla took ascetism to the extreme, and after she died, Jerome warned her mother against excessive grief. daci1234 [1] Ting Dacia l mt ngn ng n-u tuyt chng, tng c ni ti khu vc dy ni Karpat trong khong thi gian t khong 3000-1500 TCN. Version 1. Roman citizens could approach the emperor directly for seeking his opinion on specific points of law. The rest of the field army remained under the emperor's direct command and the imperial field army was divided into two units on the division of the empire between ValentinianI and Valens in 364. [41] He recognized that he could not rule the vast empire alone and made his former comrade-in-arms the Pannonian Maximian his co-ruler, first, in 285, as Caesar (or junior emperor), a year later, as Augustus. "[35] Setting aside digressions and even lacunae in the text, Res Gestae remains a unique source of information on the history of the fourth century, especially European history. [139] His successor, Jovian abolished Julian's anti-Christian edicts in the autumn of 363. They were known as Donatists for their bishop of Carthage, Donatus Magnus. Ammianus Marcellinus, (born c. 330, Antioch, Syria [now Antakya, Tur. [2] Ammianuss moralizing tendency, reminiscent of Sallust suggests that he wanted people to learn from history so that past mistakes would not be repeated. [note 4] Christian exorcists were regularly approached by pagans as well, because their practices were regarded as a magical cure against demonic possession. He referred to Rome and Persia as two lighthouses illuminating the world and depicts Constantius and Shapur as addressing each other like brothers, parting company from those for whom the Persians were just another tribe of barbarians. [169], In concert with most western bishops, ConstantineII and Constans insisted on the Nicene Creed, but ConstantiusII and the majority of the eastern clergy sympathized with the Arians. He did not persecute Christians, but failed to punish those who persecuted them. From these references, it has been deduced that he was born probably between 325 and 330 to an educated family of Greek descent, possibly in Antioch[3] This probability hinges on whether he was the recipient of a surviving letter to a Marcellinus from a contemporary, Libanius. Book 17 follows Julians campaigns as far East as the Danube River. He appears to have consciously begun where Tacitus . He exempted the Christian clergy from all public duties and taxes and legitimized pious donations to the church. The Code of Theodosius determined two major social classes, distinguishing the honestiores ("upper class") from the humiliores ("lower class"). 18 and 19 turn to Persia where Constantius was now fighting against Shapur II (310-379). He forbade the branding of slaves on the forehead, abolished penalties for celibacy, and offered financial support to poor parents to discourage infanticide. [29], Ammianus was a pagan, and some have said that he marginalizes Christianity repeatedly in his account. [12], Other digressions include a detailed description of the 365 C.E. The pagan panegyrist Themistius praised his religious policy for encouraging competition among people of diverse religious background. In comparison, the central administration employed less than a thousand full-time bureaucrats during the reign of the first emperors. They are mentioned only in late Roman sources such as Ammianus Marcellinus and St Jerome, amongst whom they had a reputation for savagery. The new arrangement ignored the ambitions of Constantius' son Constantine and Maximian's son Maxentius. Under the rescript system, the legal question was raised on the top of a piece of papyrus, and it was answered by the emperor, or rather one of his legal advisors on the bottom half. On the one hand, he was almost obsessive in his concern for truth. On the other hand, his work does suggest that he was prudent in writing what he did write, for example, his portrait of the condemned Gallus is very dark whereas a more balance picture would also have indicated his talents as a military commander, his popularity with the troops and proletariat. On the other hand, he was too kind to the memory of his own general, Ursicinus.[17] He was, though, interested in moral issues and did not hesitate to comment on what he saw as peoples failing, including the greed of the judges and advocates who played a dominant part in the ubiquitous oppressions of the regime.[18] Noblemen who lacked culture and spent their time building water organs and other musical instruments of ludicrous size.[19]. He began Book 15 with a preface promising even greater accuracy now that the contemporary period had been reached but in Book 26 reported that dread had restrained him from giving a minute account of this series of bloody deeds.[16]. Gordon, Colin Douglas. [35] Cyprian, Bishop of Carthage, after whom the plague is named, attributed the calamities to the "old age of the world", but the pagans blamed the Christians' reluctance to worship the ancient gods. Books 26 to 29 cover a series of violent and bloody events, including the trial and execution of the lawyer, Theodorus and restriction on the power of the Senate, suppression of a revolt in Africa, a rapid succession of emperors, various persecutions, the expulsion of intellectuals from Rome (383)Ammianus himself appears to have avoided this, possibly due to his military rankand the Visigoth invasion, Valen's defeat at the Battle of Adrianople (378)beginning what later became the Fall of Rome. Regarding themselves as the apostles' successors, the bishops of Rome, Alexandria and Antioch claimed the right to guide all Christians. Around 531 he banned all who had not received the orthodox/nicean baptism from teaching and serving in state administration. Ammianus Marcellinus (325/330 - after 391) was a fourth century Roman historian. [133] The regulated way of life of Egyptian priestly communities and their enthusiasm for scientific studies arrested the attention of some pagan philosophers from the 3rdcentury. The Later Roman Empire chronicles a period of twenty-five years during Marcellinus' own lifetime, covering the reigns of Constantius, Julian, Jovian, Valentinian I, and Valens, and providing eyewitness accounts of . Ammianus Marcellinus; Rolfe, John Carew, 1859-1943. [132] Emperor worship was an other essential component of Roman traditions. When writing of events familiar to them or their acquaintances, they are mostly reliable. His "New Rome" was consecrated as Constantinople on 11May 330. HistoriansRomeBiography. Located at the intersection of overland routes connecting the empire's eastern and western part, these provinces were a principal venue of military operations and recruitment. The author expresses himself in the obscure and labored Latin typical of the late empire. [40] He was proclaimed emperor at a meeting of senior officers at Nicomedia in November 284. Aspar led Eastern Roman and Italian refinforcements to Carthage, but they could not defeat the invaders. They were mainly staying along the borders and their absence from Rome gave rise to the development of new imperial centers, including Nicomedia, Serdica, Thessalonica and Trier, each provided with a palace, a hippodrome and warehouses. Christians who were regarded heretics by state authorities were regularly labelled as Manichaeans. [149], Still in 591 Pope Gregory I wrote of Sardinian pagans who had bribed the island's governor to tolerate their activities. [74], On TheodosiusI's death the Roman Empire was divided between his two sons: the eighteen-year-old Arcadius succeeded him in the east and the ten-year-old Honorius in the west. 395 CE, a Greek of Antioch, joined the army when still young and served under the governor Ursicinus and the emperor of the East Constantius II, and later under the emperor Julian, whom he admired and accompanied against the Alamanni and the Persians. The only independent textual source for Ammianus lies in M, another ninth-century Frankish codex which was, unfortunately, unbound and placed in other codices during the fifteenth century. The Visigoths left Italy and joined the coalition supporting Jovinus in Gaul, but after Honorius promised grain supplies to them, Athaulf captured and beheaded Jovinus. The provincial governors were no more responsible for military affairs, although they were occasionally ordered to lead a military campaign or build a fort. In retaliation for their attack on Christians during Easter, their temple was transformed into a Christian church. [170] He consecrated a moderate Arian priest Ulfilas bishop to lead a proselytizing mission among the Goths across the Danube in 341. [65], Julian's successor, a Christian military commander Jovian abandoned Roman territories in Mesopotamia and acknowledged Persian protectorate over Armenia in return for a thirty-year peace. To prevent further plundering raids, he agreed to pay a yearly tribute of 25,200nomismata to the Huns. The construction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and other pilgrim churches in Jerusalem and Bethlehem started during his rule. In a year, an anti-Gothic popular riot broke out in Constantinople and Arcadius dismissed Gainas with the support of an other Gothic general Fravitta. Both legal compilations are important sources of state administration, although their actual application is unproven. ]died 395, Rome [Italy]), last major Roman historian, whose work continued the history of the later Roman Empire to 378. Antioch at that time was one of the principal cities of the Roman Empire, orientis apex pulcher, 2 and Ammianus took just pride in its material prosperity. He was born about A.D. 330 in Syrian Antioch, of a good Greek family, 1 and probably received his early education in his native city. Due to a planned power outage on Friday, 1/14, between 8am-1pm PST, some services may be impacted. [140], The transformation of Roman religious life in Late Antiquity is poorly documented. They restored religious freedom, abolishing all laws limiting the Christians' civil rights. In a letter to the eastern provincials, he stated that "It is one thing to take on willingly the contest for immortality, quite another to enforce it with sanctions". The local Roman army could not stop the influx of further refugees across the Danube. 7, 4, etc. Summary: By far the most detailed account of the late Roman state and its emperors comes from the history of Ammianus Marcellinus, completed in ca. [187] Manichaeism was a dualistic religion: its adherents distinguished a good and an evil god, and blamed the evil god for the creation of the material world. Grant suggests that this was in the main because he wanted to live up to Tacitus.[28] Recent studies have, however, shown the rhetoric power in his histories, which may have been written for the purposes of recitation. Ammianus Marcellinus, ca. Little is known of his life, except that he was probably born to a Greek-speaking family in Antioch, between 325 and 330. [37], With Gallienus' successor, Claudius Gothicus the military aristocracy of the Roman provinces on the Middle Danube took control of the Roman state. Valens sought military assistance from Gratian but engaged the Goths and their allies at Adrianople without waiting for the arrival of western reinforcements. Pachomius' monastic rules for his community at Tabenna set a template for further foundations, but the Cappadocian Basil of Caesarea's rules became even more popular. [11] On the other hand, the Visigoths and Huns were no better than wild animals, and should be treated as such. Aug 05, 1986 This nation of stocky, rather shortish, dark-haired people, although foreigners from the . Ammianus Marcellinus, ca. | ISBN 9780140444063 Book 20 returns to his focus on Ursicinus, describing what Ammianus sees as his unfair dismissal and Constantius attempt to remove Julian from his post in Gaul, which resulted in the troops hailing Julian as emperor (360). CHAUMONT 1989. Walter Hamilton, trans. In 317, Licinius had to surrender Illyricum to Constantine. Ammianus Marcellinus was a fourth-century Roman historian and his work the "Res Gestae", known in English as "The Later Roman Empire", is one of the most important historical accounts to have survived from ancient Rome. Official meetings began with acclamations in their honor emphasizing the divinely sanctioned nature of their rule. Soldiers primarily worshipped Mithras or Jupiter Dolichenus and primarily eastern merchants frequented the temple of Serapis at Leptis Magna. He was a pagan and an admirer of the apostate Julian, to whose career about half the surviving books are devoted. Their children were to be educated in Christian environment and those who resisted were banished from the empire. He returned to Italy with Ursicinus, when he was recalled by Constantius, and accompanied him on the expedition against Silvanus the Frank, who had been forced by the allegedly unjust accusations of his enemies into proclaiming himself emperor in Gaul. Directly for seeking his opinion on specific points of law proclaimed emperor at a meeting senior! Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press, 1972 Michigan Press, 1972 and Italian to... Gerontius mutinied and acclaimed a certain Maximus emperor prejudice and his impartiality and good judgement been... Regarding themselves as the apostles ' successors, the cities were the centres of the.... Army led by emperor emperor, Severus Alexander was assassinated by his own troops in Britain Maximus. Son Maxentius ammianus marcellinus the later roman empire summary Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press, 1972 ammianus Marcellinus the... 25,200Nomismata to the extreme, and some have said that he was murdered plotters. [ 79 ] [ 146 ], other digressions include a detailed report of his life except! Emperor worship was an other essential component of Roman traditions generally acknowledged good have. 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Two separate hierarchies of equestrian and senatorial offices became obsolete by the end of neoplatonism occurred during the of!